The Arabic & Islamic Inscriptions: Examples Of Arabic Epigraphy
Here we will deal with examples of pre-Islamic Arabic and Islamic inscriptions from first century of hijra as well as those containing the Qur'anic verses from this time.
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The pre-Islamic Arabic is often referred to as the "Old Arabic" by scholars. The most obvious characteristic of the Old Arabic is the use of the definite article ʾl-, the precursor of classical Arabic ʾal-. Old Arabic seems to have remained a purely spoken language until the late fifth / early sixth centuries CE which means that no specific script was associated with it before that period. Thus, on the rare occasions when it was written, the script associated with the local language of prestige was used: South Arabian in the southern half of the Peninsula; Nabataean at Ḥijr, ʿEn ʿAvdat in the Negev, and at al-Namarah; a form of eastern Aramaic at Mleiha on the Oman Peninsula; and early Arabic, mainly in Syria.
The Arabic script originated from the Nabataean script. T. Nöldeke was the first to establish the link between the Nabataean and Arabic scripts in 1865, which later confirmed against J. Starcky's Syriac thesis by Grohmann. The affiliation between Nabataean and Arabic scripts has now been fully documented by J. Healey. Following are the example of some of the inscriptions written in Old Arabic.
A First Century BC Arabic Inscription In Musnad Script At Qaryat Al-Faw.
Although the inscription is in the "old" Arabic, it was written in the musnad script. This is the earliest known Arabic inscription written in the musnad script.
The inscription contains six lines; first four of which are in Aramaic and the last two are in Arabic, written in Nabataean alphabet. The Arabic portion is composed of verses of poetry. The inscription shows us that not only was Arabic poetry being composed around the turn of first/second century, but also that it was much like the poetry that was familiar to us from four centuries later. The Arabic part of the inscription consists of three hemistichs in al-tawil, the most commonly used of the classical meters.
Healey and Smith have hailed it as the earliest dated Arabic document. The salient point of this inscription is that it has diacritical points on the letters د، ش and ر.
This inscription is unique is several respects. It is the earliest inscription so far discovered in the classical Arabic language. Also it is the one of the two Arabic inscriptions written in Nabataean alphabet. This inscription is the only contemporary evidence we have in Arabic about the life of King Imru'l Qais. This inscription, therefore, is of great interest both to the historians as well as philologians.
This inscription is the second oldest so far discovered in Arabic alphabet after the Raqush inscription. The salient point of this inscription is that it has diacritical points for the letters ج، ي and ن. The grammar in this inscription is straightforward classical Arabic. The language in this inscription is closer to modern Arabic than the language of Shakespeare is to modern English.
The discovery of these two inscriptions is of considerable importance in confirming suggestions of the evolution of the Arabic writing inside the Arabian peninsula rather than outside its borders.
The grammar in this inscription is straightforward classical Arabic. The language in this inscription is closer to modern Arabic than the language of Shakespeare is to modern English.
As the name suggests, it is a trilingual inscription. The Arabic, though, does not translate the Greek but merely listing six names, not all of which are mentioned in Greek.
This is the only pre-Islamic Arabic inscription with historical content.
A Greek-Arabic bilingual inscription from Harran, near Damascus, Syria.
It is an Arabic inscription written on a grave inside a church.
This is a one-word Arabic inscription. It was engraved in a piece of wood that was found carbonized with an archive of Greek papyri found in a Byzantine church in Petra. The archaeological context suggests the 2nd quarter of the 6th century to the beginning of the 7th century CE as the date of the piece of charcoal. The palaeographical analysis postulated the same period as a date for the inscription. This fact is of a special significance, since the inscription carries diacritic marks, and becomes thus to be the earliest evidence for the use of the diacritic marks in the Arabic script.
A inscription contains a curious mixture of Arabic and Nabataean characters showing the dots associated with Arabic letters ب، ت، and ن.
These set of inscriptions from near Madinah, although written in a striking Kufic script, bear no date. They have been dated c. 4 AH using the internal evidence. These set of inscriptions are also the earliest to mention the names of Abu Bakr, ʿUmar, ʿAli and Muḥammad Ibn ʿAbdullah, etc.
An inscription from Batman Su (or Nymphæus), Turkey. Although this inscription had generated a lot of discussion but it failed to provide a sustained interested due to lack of a photograph.
This inscription written in old Kufic script is interesting as it leaves out tantalizing detail of its dating. If the number "23" in the inscription means the year then it is the oldest published inscription.
This is the earliest dated ḥijāzī inscription. It was written by Zuhayr "at the time of ʿUmar's death" in 24 AH, thus mentioning the name of the second caliph. This inscription, it appears, is destined to be the most famous of all the Arabic inscriptions as the UNESCO has added it to the Memory of the World Register of Documentary Collections. The Discovery Channel also mentioned the importance of this inscription in the news.
This inscription was found by a Japanese team doing archaeological surveys in South Western Arabia.
Dated to Ramaḍan, 29 AH / May, 650 CE. No photograph was provided for this inscription, although the content was given. Recently, this inscription was discussed at length by Amikam Elad who has shown using the historical sources that it is a genuine inscription.
This is perhaps the most celebrated inscription, quoted often in the references dealing with Arabic inscriptions and palaeography.
This inscription was found on the Darb Zubayda caravan route at Wādī 'l-Shamiya during an archaeological survey in 1970s.
The valley of Hammat Gader is famous for naturally cold and hot springs known for their therapeutic powers. These once filled the large and small pools of an early Byzantine spa, supplying it with hot and cold waters. The Greek inscription from the time of the Umayyad caliph Mu‘āwiya refers to the restoration of the baths.
This graffito was found in Wādī Sabil during the Philby-Ryckmans-Lippens expedition. The inscription shows a dot below ب. This is the third earliest dated inscription.
This inscription was found on the Darb Zubayda caravan route at al-Khashna during an archaeological survey in 1970s.
It is interesting to note that this inscription shows the use of consonantal points for ي, ب، ن، ث، خ، ف and ت.
This inscription mentions the name of the three well-known angels in Islam, viz., Gabriel, Michael and Israfil whose Lord is Allah.
A band of inscriptions usually on textiles is called the tiraz. The silk with the tiraz inscription in the name of Marwan, one of the Umayyad caliphs, exists in three pieces, all found in Egypt, is dated to the time of Marwan ibn al-Hakam. This dating makes it the earliest known Islamic textile.
A bronze can with an inscription placed around the rim, perhaps originating from Basra during the Umayyad period.
This inscription was first attested by Maqrīzī (d. 845 AH / 1442 CE).
An interesting inscription that mentions the name of Prophet Muḥammad along with the phrase "ahl al-Islām". It also mentions theshahadah. Interestingly, Crone and Cook (Hagarism: The Making Of The Islamic World, 1977, Cambridge University Press) chose to ignore this inscription only to conclude that the word "Islam" was used only in the eighth century CE!
The inscriptions on the Dome of the Rock can be rightly called as the "big-daddy" of all the first century Islamic inscriptions. Built by the Umayyad Caliph ʿAbd al-Malik, these inscriptions have copious amount of Qur'anic verses.
The Arabic inscriptions in copper plaques at the eastern entrance and the northern portal of the Dome of the Rock are not as well known as the ones inscribed inside the Dome of the Rock. Inscribed by the Umayyad Caliph ʿAbd al-Malik, these inscriptions have five Qur'anic verses quoted partially.
This is the oldest inscription in Islam relating to the inaugral of a road and it is also the second longest and almost the fullest inscription from the time of ʿAbd al-Malik after that of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. This inscription furnishes clear evidence that ʿAbd al-Malik did not satisfy himself with repairing the old roads and maintaining them in a fit state of traffic, but that he also thought of, and at least in this instance executed enterprises on a large scale.
Moshe Sharon, who published this inscription, inclines to the view that the person mentioned in this inscription is Yaḥya b. al-Ḥakam, uncle of the Umayyad caliph ʿAbd al-Malik. The date is deduced from the fact that Yaḥya b. al-Ḥakam died c. 80 AH / 699-700 CE.
This building inscription in Qasr Burqu‘ was built by al-Walīd before his ascension to the throne (705-715 CE).
It contains a mixture of verses 4:1, 2:21 and 2:189.
A dated milestone at 52 miles from Damascus found in the village of Fīq (or Afīq) in Golan.
A dated milestone at 53 miles from Damascus found in the village of Fīq (or Afīq) in Golan.
This inscription is no longer extant and it is reported to us in two versions: a shorter one by Mas‘ūdī and a longer one by Muḥammad ibn Shākir al-Kutubī (d. 1363 CE).
An interesting woven inscription from Egypt and it is the second earliest dated Islamic textile after the tiraz inscription. The inscription was done on a turban for Samuel b. Musa, perhaps a Jew or a Christian, in the year 88 AH.
This inscription, a pious and moving invocation, is full of Qur'anic flavour.
This earthen bowl was manufactured for Prince Sulaymān b. ʿAbd al-Malik before his ascension to the throne 96-98 AH / 715-717 CE.
This deals with dated and undated glass vessels from Beit Shean that remind people of honesty and justice when dealing with customers.
It quotes part of 65:3 as it is and the rest of the verse is slightly modified without changing the meaning.
This inscription was discovered in 1886 at the archaeological site of Khirbat Nitil. The eight lines are located in an inner vaulted room in the western wall. The inscription shows a dot below for غ. The inscription mentions hawḍ Muḥammad, i.e., the pool of Prophet Muḥammad in the Paradise, from which the believers will drink. This pool is mentioned in many ḥadīths.
Written in the kufic script. This inscription shows the use of consonantal point for ت.
This milestone was found in the woods next to Aqua Bella-ʿAyn Hemed on the road between Jerusalem and coast. From Jerusalem to this milestone are 5 miles.
This milestone was found near the church of Abū Ghōsh. It is made up of limestone and shows five line, with probably three or four lines missing at the top and the upper right corner. From Jerusalem to this milestone are 7 miles.
This milestone was found in a ruin north of the watchtower at Bāb al-Wād on the road from Jerusalem to al-Ramla. It has diacritical strokes for ث، ن and ي, as seen in the last line. From Jerusalem to this milestone are 8 miles.
Marble milestone found at the cloister of Khozaiba near Deir al-Qalt on the Jerusalem-Damascus road. It has six remaining lines, as the top and the right hand side have broken off. From Jerusalem to this milestone are 107 miles.
This milestone is from Khān al-Hathrūra, Palestine, on the road between Jerusalem and Damascus. The marble slab contains seven lines engraved in bas-relief. The first two lines are broken off. From Damascus to this milestone are 109 miles.
Written on brown sandstone boulders in a good angular early Umayyad script, incised by an expert hand. No points and no vowels.
This inscription was found on the Byzantine fortress of Rujm Ṣfār. It expresses the Muslim belief in the unity of God and that He has not partners.
Two inscriptions containing declaration of faith in God.
This graffito was found in Sadd al-ʿArḍa, about 10 kms south-east of Ta'if, during the Philby-Ryckmans-Lippens expedition.
An interesting inscription containing the Qur'anic verse 33:56.
4. Inscriptions From Second Century Of Hijra
An interesting inscription that mentions supplication for the acceptance of prayer and fasting during the month of Ramaḍan.
The primary source upon which the early Arabic inscriptions draw is, without doubt, the Qur'an. Occasionally an inscription may be composed of nothing more than a Qur'anic citation. Sometimes a Qur'anic verse may be quoted in full within the text of an inscription. More common still, an inscription will be an eclectic blend of words and phrases taken from different verses of the Qur'an, often slightly modified and / or supplemented as required; a technique that is also quite often used in khutbahs and Islamic lectures. Even those inscriptions that do not explicitly cite or paraphrase the Qur'an will mostly be comprised of words and concepts familiar from the Qur'an.
Below are some of the examples of early inscriptions from 1st and 2nd century of hijra that quote from the Qur'an.
It contains a mixture of verses 4:1, 2:21 and 2:189.
This inscription is no longer extant and it is reported to us in two versions: a shorter one by Mas‘ūdī and a longer one by Muḥammad ibn Shākir al-Kutubī (d. 1363 CE). The longer version has the verse from Qur'an 2:256.
It quotes part of 65:3 as it is and the rest of the verse is slightly modified without changing the meaning.
The inscription contains complete Qur'an 56:28-40 with an addition of the phrase "What will be the Companions of the Right Hand" between verses 38 and 39 perhaps to give a fitting conclusion to the inscription.
This article discusses the Umayyad inscriptions on Dome of the Rock among others to show that the Qur'an was already codified before the construction of Dome of the Rock.
This article discusses the content and context of the inscriptions from various parts of Islamic world and reaches a conclusion opposite to that of narrowly focused work of Nevo and others.
The corpus of dated Muslim texts until 72 AH / 691 CE for the study of early Islam.
The corpus of dated texts containing the Qur'an from 1-100 AH / 622-719 CE proving the early codification of the Qur'an in Arabic.
The corpus of dated non-scriptural Muslim and non-Muslim texts mentioning Prophet Muhammad from the first Islamic century.
Yehuda Nevo in his work on Negev inscriptions has simply used Wansbrough's "conjectural," "provisional" and "tentative and emphatically provisional" hypothesis without substantiating them with evidence, as his conclusions to "show" that Islam originated from a Judeo-Christian sectarian environment. In other words, Nevo's argument is circular.
An interesting and devastating critique by Colin Wells of Nevo and Koren's work that calls for radical revisionism of Islamic history.
A witty insight into the methodlogies of the revisionists. Revisionism rests on several peculiar assumptions and these assumptions the author highlights in a very lucid way.
Islamic History
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